Teen Social Issues Essays - Alcohol Abuse, Drinking Culture, Suicide

Youngster Social Issues Essays - Alcohol Abuse, Drinking Culture, Suicide Youngster Social Issues There are numerous social issues that youngsters go tossed. I think the two most perceived issues are Teenage Drinking and Driving, and Teen Suicide. These two social practices young people go tossed are two of the main sources of high school passing in the province of New Mexico. Liquor, the most broadly utilized and manhandled medicate among youth, causes genuine and conceivably dangerous issues for this populace. New Mexico holds one of the country's most noteworthy DWI (Driving While Intoxicated) rates (Ulibarri, 1999). Engine vehicle crashes are the main source of death for adolescents in New Mexico. Society should now confront a few inquiries, for what reason do adolescents drink, what are the consequences of youngster driving under the influence, and by what method would society be able to change this example. Consistently several youngsters kick the bucket in the state New Mexico. High schooler self destruction is the quickest developing enemy of youth in America and whenever left unaddressed it will influence are people in the future. For what reason do adolescents drink liquor? Friends assume the significant job in molding perspectives about liquor use. Before this time, TV and motion pictures assumed the most powerful job. The mentalities of guardians toward liquor corresponded emphatically with the perspectives of their youngsters. There are a few reasons why young people provide for drinking liquor which incorporate diversion, defiance, mitigate gloom, exhaustion, and weariness. Additionally in light of the fact that they have individual issues at home that make them go to liquor. Different reasons are a friend or family member dying, battling with guardians, separation, and partition of family. The primary factor of high school drinking is impact from their companions. Young people in our general public are constrained into evaluating liquor just because to perceive how it suggests a flavor like. On the off chance that they surrender to their friends they become some portion of the gathering, however on the off chance that they don't they are not acknowledged into the gathering. Because of adolescents being affected by liquor, they don't know that once they get in the driver's seat they are taking a chance with their lives and the lives of other blameless individuals out and about. Young people believe it's cool to drive under the influence. They don't feel anything will transpire. A study finished up, Males having higher paces of every day drinking and hard-core boozing than females, however these distinction are lessening. While white understudies report the most significant levels of drinking, Blacks report the least, and Hispanics fall between the two (Alcohol Alert, 1999). The makes that lead them car crashes are driver inability, driving late around evening time, having expended liquor, speeding, energetic hazard, and driving during passionate pressure. Numerous projects are being offered to instruct young people and individuals on the most proficient method to forestall liquor related mishaps. The respectable man that came to converse with us on DWI r elated mishaps had exceptionally intriguing realities on Rio Arriba County. I discovered it fluctuate instructive. In Rio Arriba County there is a DWI course being offered to anybody keen on creating methodologies to forestall DWI from happening by illuminating youngsters the DWI punishments, and laws in New Mexico, what occurs in a DWI capture and preliminary, and what the blood liquor fixation level is. Training can assist youngsters with getting mindful of the outcomes of driving under the influence. However successful methods of managing adolescent driving under the influence are formal treatment. Adolescents can be taken to visit a Recovery focus, which is a procedure of putting the treatment plan energetically. It comprise of (1) instruction, (2) Group treatment, (3) biography, (4) singular treatment, (5) peer evaluation, (6) recreational treatment, (7) adapting aptitudes and unwinding treatment, (8) bolster bunch participation, and (9) profoundly. Rio Arriba County is one of six networks the country over to take an interest in the Rapid Responses Team Pilot Project, which is intended to consider whether a group of specialists can work with network individuals to create compelling methods of diminishing underage drinking. The groups are contained one master from every one of the accompanying calling: law implementation, instruction, anticipation, open arrangement, and key arranging. Consistently a great many youngsters bite the dust in the United States, not from disease or auto collisions, however by their own hand; they settle on the decision that they need to pass on, and they end their life. Self destruction is the quickest developing enemy of youth in America (www.yellowribbon.org), and assuming left

Static Equilibrium Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Static Equilibrium - Coursework Example An item with zero increasing speed doesn't suggest that, it is very still. Articles in harmony state are very still and remaining very still or in force and keep on being in energy with a similar speed and heading. This idea likewise radiates from Newton’s first law of movement (Herbert 135) At the point when an item is at a state of rest and the powers following up on its particles are adjusted (Equilibrium) at that point, for example, circumstance is alluded as static balance. The term static suggests a fixed state or a state of rest. The aggregate measure of powers following up on an article in harmony otherwise called the vector whole is proportional to 0 Newton (Cathrine 1) An item must be in a fixed express, the must likewise not be in a condition of transitional increasing speed just as rotational quickening. Likewise, the vector aggregate of all the outer powers following up on it should be zero: âˆ' F = 0 Since this article is at harmony, the extent of the powers spoke to as Force A, Force B, Force C and Force D following up on it are adjusted. This additionally suggests the level and the vertical powers summarize to 0 Newton. One strategy that can be utilized to gauge and set up whether an item is in balance or not is a case where an article is tied and held tight two surprises to gauging scales all the while. The graph is shown underneath; The greatness of the powers following up on the item is appeared by the estimation showed on scale 1 and scale 2 just as the extent of power A (Cathrine 3) A case of an article at a static harmony can likewise be shown by a crate that lays on the floor. The crate is affected on by two outer powers at various bearings that is, the gravitational power that pulls the case to the focal point of the earth. A proportional power is additionally affected by the floor on the crate (pushes the container

ACT Site Closings and Test Scores - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

ACT Site Closings and Test Scores - UGA Undergraduate Admissions ACT Site Closings and Test Scores As sometimes happens in Georgia, we are hit by a snowstorm, which means people flock to the grocery store for break and milk, schools are cancelled for a period of time, and testing centers for the SAT and ACT have to postpone the exams. UGA Admissions has been tracking the school closings for December 8, 2017, and we also know that some ACT sites for the 12/9 ACT exam will be postponing this testing date. In light of this, we have heard that the most likely make-up exam date will be the weekend of January 6-7, 2018. If a student has an ACT exam that is postponed from 12/9 to 1/6 or 1/7, we will use the ACT from this make-up ACT exam. Two provisions do apply to this extension of the deadline: If you are taking the ACT make-up exam, make sure that UGA is a score recipient prior to you taking the test. Do not wait until after you see the scores to determine if you should send the results, as this will delay things. Since UGA is a best score institution and we superscore test scores, sending us the scores before knowing the results will not hurt an applicant in any way. If there are unusual situations surrounding your scores for the 1/6 date which causes the scores to extremely delayed in being sent (late February or March as an example), this will cause us problems in accepting these scores for 2018 applicants. We do not expect any unusual situations, but that is why the oddities are referred to as unusual. At a certain point, UGA has to stop importing scores and documents so we can move forward with decisions. For anyone sending in test scores, know that we upload scores the morning after we receive them from the testing agency, and you can track the scores both on your application status page and on the student portal of the testing agency. If a score shows up on an applicants status page prior to final decisions, it means we imported it in time and are able to use it. I hope this helps! Now run out and buy eggs, milk, bread and water. Its going fast. Go Dawgs!

The Court Case Of Powell Vs. Alabama During The 1930s

Supreme Court Case The United States’ attention was captivated on the Supreme Court Case of Powell vs Alabama during the 1930s. During the time period, this case revealed the brutal treatment towards African Americans more than any other event. The case began on March 25, 1931, when a group of young white and African American youths were traveling on a train to find a job. A physical encounter broke out between them and the white youths were thrown out of the train. Then they reported the incident to a stationmaster, who stopped the train. The police arrived to gather the nine African Americans and brought them to jail. Nine young African Americans were recognized as the â€Å"Scottsboro boys†. They were accused of rape of two white women on that train. The white jury convicted eight of them, all except one, the youngest at 12-years-old, and were sentenced to death. These youths were falsely charged with raping two white women in Alabama. Although there was no evidence that linked the Afr ican Americans to the white women, they were still charged with sexual assault. The two women -- fearing prosecution for their sexual relationship with the white men agreed to testify against the black youths. The Supreme Court Case of Powell vs Alabama is crucial in both Civil Rights history and in the evolution of the Constitution. This landmark ruling in the Scottsboro case, Powell v. Alabama was named after one of the nine defendants. This was the case that drove the Constitution toShow MoreRelatedHow did the events of the 1930’s impact African Americans prospects?809 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿How did the events of the 1930’s impact African Americans prospects? Charlie Wilson The 1930’s was a time of great struggle in the USA. The New York stock market crashed in 1929 and triggered a spiral of economic depression, which hit African Americans hard. The Great Depression had a huge impact on African Americans. The Great Depression of the 1930s was catastrophic for all workers. But as usual, African Americans suffered worse, pushed out of unskilled jobs previously scorned by whites beforeRead MoreMonsanto: Better Living Through Genetic Engineering96204 Words   |  385 Pages441 441 CASE STUDIES A summary of the case analysis I N T R O D U C T I O N Preparing an effective case analysis: The full story Hearing with the aid of implanted technology: The case of Cochlearâ„ ¢ – an Australian C A S E O N E high-technology leader Delta Faucet: Global entrepreneurship in an emerging market C A S E T W O DaimlerChrysler: Corporate governance dynamics in a global company C A S E T H R E E Gunns and the greens: Governance issues in Tasmania C A S E F O U R Succeeding in theRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesvi BRIEF CONTENTS 4 The Organization System 16 Organizational Culture 511 17 Human Resource Policies and Practices 543 18 Organizational Change and Stress Management 577 Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior Comprehensive Cases Indexes Glindex 637 663 616 623 Contents Preface xxii 1 1 Introduction What Is Organizational Behavior? 3 The Importance of Interpersonal Skills 4 What Managers Do 5 Management Functions 6 †¢ Management Roles 6 †¢ Management

Should Casinos Be Legalized - 1514 Words

Should or Should Casinos Not Be Legalized in Thailand? Does Las Vegas sound exciting? Have you ever longed to go there and try your hand at a fortune? Almost everyone has a dream that they’ll win big, and this is why towns such as Las Vegas have such a strong appeal to the public. The problem arises when people visit casinos and take gambling too far. For some this form of entertainment turns into an addiction. This creates a rather big controversy whether casinos should or should not be legalized in certain countries such as Thailand. Some claim that it should be legalized because casinos are beneficial to the economy in that they create new jobs and are advantageous to local businesses, while others oppose it because it does not†¦show more content†¦In addition, the majority of the people who go to casinos are the people from the surrounding area, which does not help either. On a closer aspect, one of the single hardest hit businesses by the gambling industry is perhaps the restaurants around the casinos. Casinos offer an enormous amount of cheap food to attempt to keep people inside. Many of them even have promotions, where free food is offered to cover the slower times of the day, for instance the Palace Casino on the Mississippi Gulf Coast offers a free Buffet every day. (â€Å"Free Stuff..†, 2001) What now? The losers are the neighborhood restaurants many of whom soon go out of business. In Atlantic City, for example, the number of restaurants has decreased by 40 percent since 1997. (Dunstan, 1997) What do you think would happen to street vendors in Thailand? Exactly! They would probably go down the drain. (Which may be beneficial for the society but for the purpose of this argument, the bottom line is they suffer) You see, casinos are nothing but a nightmare to the small locally owned businesses. Furthermore, pros say that there is nothing inherent in gambling and that any activity that attracts large numbers of people may cause an increase in crime rates. It doesnt have anything to do with gambling, inherently. Well I object! Probably the most devastating consequences of casinos are the hidden social costs and problems imposed on the gamblers and often on their families. ManyShow MoreRelatedGambling Should be Legalized.1571 Words   |  7 PagesGambling should be legalized What is gambling? According to www.dictionary.com gambling is taking a risk in the hope of gaining an advantage or a benefit. Gambling has been around for centuries and has been dated way back to 1492. People have been gambling in America ever since America was found. There are numerous underground cards clubs and casinos all over the country and in major cities. People gamble on everything: sports evens, dice, and cards. 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Marking Scheme Free Essays

www. studyguide. pk UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS GCE Advanced Subsidiary Level and GCE Advanced Level MARK SCHEME for the May/June 2008 question paper 9697 HISTORY 9697/01 Paper 1, maximum raw mark 100 This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of the examination. We will write a custom essay sample on Marking Scheme or any similar topic only for you Order Now It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began. All Examiners are instructed that alternative correct answers and unexpected approaches in candidates’ scripts must be given marks that fairly reflect the relevant knowledge and skills demonstrated. Mark schemes must be read in conjunction with the question papers and the report on the examination. †¢ CIE will not enter into discussions or correspondence in connection with these mark schemes. CIE is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2008 question papers for most IGCSE, GCE Advanced Level and Advanced Subsidiary Level syllabuses and some Ordinary Level syllabuses. www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 2 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 GENERIC MARK BANDS FOR ESSAY QUESTIONS Examiners will assess which Level of Response best reflects most of the answer. An answer will not be required to demonstrate all of the descriptions in a particular Level to qualify for a Mark Band. In bands of 3 or 4 marks, examiners will normally award the middle mark/one of the middle marks, moderating it up or down according to the particular qualities of the answer. In bands of 2 marks, examiners should award the lower mark if an answer just deserves the band and the higher mark if the answer clearly deserves the band. Band 1 Marks 21–25 Levels of Response The approach will be consistently analytical or explanatory rather than descriptive or narrative. Essays will be fully relevant. The argument will be structured coherently and supported by very appropriate factual material and ideas. The writing will be accurate. At the lower end of the band, there may be some weaker sections but the overall quality will show that the candidate is in control of the argument. The best answers must be awarded 25 marks. 2 18–20 Essays will be focused clearly on the demands of the question but there will be some unevenness. The approach will be mostly analytical or explanatory rather than descriptive or narrative. The answer will be mostly relevant. Most of the argument will be structured coherently and supported by largely accurate factual material. The impression will be that a good solid answer has been provided. 3 16–17 Essays will reflect a clear understanding of the question and a fair attempt to provide an argument and factual knowledge to answer it. The approach will contain analysis or explanation but there may be some heavily descriptive or narrative passages. The answer will be largely relevant. Essays will achieve a genuine argument but may lack balance and depth in factual knowledge. Most of the answer will be structured satisfactorily but some parts may lack full coherence. 4 14–15 Essays will indicate attempts to argue relevantly although often implicitly. The approach will depend more on some heavily descriptive or narrative passages than on analysis or explanation, which may be limited to introductions and conclusions. Factual material, sometimes very full, will be used to impart information or describe events rather than to address directly the requirements of the question. The structure of the argument could be organised more effectively. 5 11–13 Essays will offer some appropriate elements but there will be little attempt generally to link factual material to the requirements of the question. The approach will lack analysis and the quality of the description or narrative, although sufficiently accurate and relevant to the topic if not the particular question, will not be linked effectively to the argument. The structure will show weaknesses and the treatment of topics within the answer will be unbalanced. 6 8-10 Essays will not be properly focused on the requirements of the question. There may be many unsupported assertions and commentaries that lack sufficient factual support. The argument may be of limited relevance to the topic and there may be confusion about the implications of the question. 7 0-7 Essays will be characterised by significant irrelevance or arguments that do not begin to make significant points. The answers may be largely fragmentary and incoherent. Marks at the bottom of this Band will be given very rarely because even the most wayward and fragmentary answers usually make at least a few valid points.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. k Page 3 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 Section A: The Origins of World War I, 1870–1914 Source-Based Question: Analysis and Evaluation 1 ‘Serbia was most to blame for the Sarajevo Crisis. ’ Use Sources A–E to show how far the evidence confirms this statement. CONTENT ANALYSIS [L2–3] EVALUATION [L4–5] A Strong antiAustrian, antiFranz Ferdinand statement by a member of a terrorist group. Y-Threats expressed to Austria and the Archduke B Official letter from a German Ambassador to the Kaiser with his handwritten notes. Y-The Ambassador urged Austria to take a oderate attitude and avoid an extreme response. N-William II realised that the situation was very serious and fully supported Austria. He did not urge moderation. CROSSREFERENCE TO OTHER PASSAGES Y-Source C agrees Y-Source can be that there was accepted not only widespread antias the personal Austrian feeling in view of the writer but as the opinion of Serbia. N-Contradicted by other members of Source D and the Black Hand. especially Source E, N-Source comes from a member of a the views of official Serbian opinion small group. Although particularly which is anxious to reach a settlement iolent, it was not with Austria. representative of general Serbian opinion. Y-The letter is authentic and probably reflects accurately the views of th e Ambassador. Y-The Kaiser’s handwritten notes are authentic and reflect his reaction to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Y-Although the writers of B disagree about Austria’s reactions, taken together they represent different German opinions. Y-Agrees with Source A that the Austrians see danger in Serbia. Source C agrees that Serbian public opinion is very widely anti-Austrian. N-Source D gives the cautious and anxious views of the French nd British governments. There is also a reference to the fears of the Serbian government.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net OTHER (e. g. Contextual knowledge) Y- Serbia was the leading state in the Balkans that represented a serious nationalist threat to the diverse Austrian Empire. It might have done more to suppress violent groups. N-The Serbian government was not responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. This act was condemned universally but Austria used it as an excuse to take action agains t Serbia. It did not enter negotiations seriously. Y-By 1914, Austria was eeply suspicious of Serbia as the leader of hostile new independent states, threatening the further break-up of its Empire. Y-Serbia did not act sufficiently to suppress anti-Austrian terrorist groups. N-The Kaiser’s notes reflect his complete support for Austria, e. g. the Blank Cheque, and his tendency to adopt hasty and immoderate attitudes. N-The conditions that Austria made on Serbia were probably too humiliating to be acceptable. www. studyguide. pk Page 4 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 C Letter of an Austrian diplomat to the Austrian Foreign Minister Y-Anti-Austrian feeling was widespread in Serbia. All social and political groups were involved. There was even the (ludicrous) claim that Austria had caused the assassination. Y-The diplomat was in Belgrade when he wrote the letter; he had first-hand knowledge. N-He neglects the reasons for Serbian hostility to Austria. Y-Agrees with Source A, which is evidence of terrorist animosity to Austria. Agrees with the Kaiser in Source B that Austria had a justified grievance against Serbia. N-Disagrees with D, the moderate views of other major states who do not condemn Serbia. Disagrees ith Source E, which is an offer by the Serbian government to settle differences. Y-Anti-Austrian feeling in Serbia had been building up for a long time. An example was the Balkans Wars. Austria felt itself on the defensive. N-Serbia was a smaller country and did not represent a major threat, even to a declining Austria. D Letter from the French Ambassador to his Foreign Minister. N-Fears of an extr eme Austrian reaction are shared by the governments of France, Britain and Serbia. Austria is seen as the major danger to peace. Y-The letter probably represents accurately the discussions in which he Ambassador was involved. N-Source does not appreciate the reasons why Austria was taking a strong line against Serbia. Y-Source B partly agrees inasmuch as the German Ambassador dissuaded the Austrians from taking extreme measures. Source E agrees as the offer of the Serbian government to resolve differences with Austria. N-Source C strongly disagrees. Source A can also be seen to disagree because it shows the unremitting hostility of an antiAustrian terrorist group. Y-France and Britain wished to defuse the Sarajevo crisis. The Serbian government was willing to make concessions. N-The British overnment did not make its exact attitude sufficiently clear. E Message from a Serbian Ambassador to his Prime Minister. N-The Serbian government condemns the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and wishes to strengthen good relations with Austria. Y-The message is reliable because it is very probably authentic. N-The Serbian government had not previously done all possible to suppress violent anti-Austrian groups. Y-Source D agrees directly and indirectly. Source B partially agrees (the words of the German Ambassador). N-Source A can be taken to disagree as can the Kaiser‘s notes in Source B. Source C strongly disagrees: opinion in Serbia is extremely anti-Austrian. Y-The Serbian government responded positively to Austrian demands after the Sarajevo assassination. N-The Serbian government had tolerated the presence of some extreme antiAustrian groups.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 5 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 Marking Notes [Note: all papers are to be marked using the generic marking bands for source-based and essay questions. ) 1 Source-Based Question L1 WRITES ABOUT THE HYPOTHESIS, NO USE OF SOURCES [1–5] These answers write about Sarajevo or even generally about 1914 but will ignore the question, i. e. they will not use the sources as information/evidence to test the given hypothesis. For example, they will not discuss ‘Serbia was most to blame for the Sarajevo Crisis’ but will describe events very generally. Include in this level answers which use information taken from the sources but only in providing a summary of views expressed by the writers, rather than for testing the hypotheses. Alternatively, the sources might be ignored in a general essay answer. L2 USES INFORMATION TAKEN FROM THE SOURCES TO CHALLENGE OR SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS 6–8] These answers use the sources as information rather than as evidence, i. e. sources are used at face value only with no evaluation/interpretation in context. For example, ‘Austria exaggerated the crisis caused by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The German Ambassador in Source B does not think that the Aus trian government should take precipitate measures against Serbia, preferring a more considered approach. Source D states that the British Foreign Minister shared this view and believed that the Austrian government should be reasonable in its demands on Serbia. Source E gives the view of the Serbian government, in which it promised not to allow extremism against Austria in its territories. Those proved of being involved in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand would be punished. The Serbian government wished for good relations with Austria. ’ Or alternatively, ‘Austria did not exaggerate the crisis caused by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Source A portrays the extreme opinions of a member of a terrorist group even after the assassination. They represented a potent threat to Austria. In Source B, the Kaiser supported Austria and did not agree that Austria should be advised to be cautious. In Source C, the Austrian diplomat describes widespread extreme anti-Austrian feeling in Serbia after the assassination. ’ L3 USES INFORMATION TAKEN FROM SOURCES TO CHALLENGE AND SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS. [9–13] These answers know that testing the hypothesis involves both attempting to confirm and to disconfirm it. However, sources are used only at face value. For example, ‘There is evidence for and against the claim that Serbia was most to blame for the Sarajevo Crisis. Source A supports the claim because it is evidence of the views of a member of a terrorist group that was completely anti-Austrian and completely critical of the visit to Sarajevo of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. He was not only expressing his own opinion. This is supported in Source B by the views of Kaiser William II and in Source C, the description of anti-Austrian feeling in Serbia. On the other hand, the claim is contradicted by other Sources. Source C records the fears of a Serbian Ambassador in Britain that Austria would overreact whilst Grey, the British Foreign Minister, had asked the Austrian government to pursue oderate policies. Source E proves that the Serbian government was willing to punish those who were responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and sought good relations with Austria. ’  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 6 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 L4 BY INTERPRETING/EVALUATING SOURCES CHALLEN GE OR SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS. IN CONTEXT, Syllabus 9697 FINDS Paper 01 EVIDENCE TO [14–16] These answers are capable of using sources as evidence, i. e. demonstrating their utility in testing the hypothesis, by interpreting them in their historical context, i. . not simply accepting them at face value. For example, ‘It is more accurate that Austria exaggerated the crisis caused by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Source A is violently anti-Austrian and regards the Archduke as a tyrant. It was particularly offensive to issue such a statement soon after the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. However, the Black Hand group was a small minority and not necessarily representative of the wider Serbian opinion. The Kaiser’s support of stern Austrian action in Source B is typical of his volatile tendencies. It is not reliable as evidence of Austria’s reaction. Source C is a long account of anti-Austrian feeling in Serbia but is not necessarily reliable although it is written by a diplomat. It is contradicted by the views of the Serbian Ambassador in Source D, who claims that Austria had pursued anti-Serbian policies for a long time, and even more by the Serbian Ambassador in Source E. There might have been strong anti-Austrian feeling in Serbia, as Source C reports, but Source E is strong evidence of the wish of the Serbian government not to provoke Austria. Source D includes the views of other governments. Both the French and British governments believe that the Austrian government should remain calm. There was a long history of ill feeling between Austria and the Balkan states, especially in Serbia. The assassination of a leading member of the Austrian royal family (the Emperor’s heir) was particularly dramatic but Austria shared the blame for the poor relations between these countries. ’ L5 BY INTERPRETING AND EVALUATING SOURCES IN CONTEXT, FINDS EVIDENCE TO CHALLENGE AND SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS. 17–21] These answers know that testing the hypothesis involves attempting both to confirm and disconfirm the hypothesis, and are capable of using sources as evidence to do this (i. e. both confirmation and disconfirmation are done at this level). For example, (L4 plus) ‘†¦ However, the sources can also be interpreted to show that Serbia was most to blame for the Sarajevo Crisis. Source A comes from a member of a terrorist group that had carried out the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and its programme was widely supported in Serbia. There is no sign that the Black Hand would end its activities and, although it had few members, the danger that they represented had already been proved by their role in the assassination. Source B includes the provocative views of the Kaiser but the German Ambassador’s letter does not criticise the Austrians for exaggerating the crisis; he only wishes the Austrians to be moderate in their response. Source C is strong evidence of the anti-Austrian sentiments in Serbia. The diplomat was correct in his belief that such feelings were very widespread in Serbia. It is also true that Serbia, like other Balkan states, believed that Austria was a declining power. Austria had to take strong action to counter this opinion. Even more insulting was the allegation that Austria had caused the assassination. ’  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 7 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 L6 AS L5, PLUS EITHER (a) EXPLAIN WHY EVIDENCE TO CHALLENGE/SUPPORT IS BETTER/ PREFERRED, OR (b) RECONCILES/EXPLAINS PROBLEMS IN THE EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT NEITHER CHALLENGE NOR SUPPORT IS TO BE PREFERRED. [22–25] For (a), the argument must be that the evidence for challenging or supporting the claim is more justified. This must involve a comparative judgement, i. e. not just why some evidence is better, but why some evidence is worse. For example, ‘Although there is evidence in the Sources both to challenge and support the claim that Serbia was most to blame for the Sarajevo Crisis, the more convincing case contradicts the claim. The strongest evidence is from the Sources that show how anxious the Serbian government was to defuse the situation. These are Source D and especially Source E. Although Source D is a letter from the Ambassador of a country that was not friendly towards Austria, it is probably an accurate account of the discussions that he was involved in. It can be supported by own knowledge that the Serbian government was fearful of Austria and that the British government, represented by Grey, called for moderation. Source E is very probably an accurate account of a Serbian government’s message to Austria and its wish to avoid extreme action. Source A should not be given much weight as justification for harsh policies by Austria. The members of the Black Hand group were few. They were a danger to Austria but this did not justify action against Serbia as a whole. The handwritten notes of William II in Source B are an exaggerated response in support of Austria. They contrast with the more sensible attitude of the German Ambassador in this extract. Whilst Source C is probably a generally accurate account of anti-Austrian feeling in Serbia, it ignores Austria’s responsibility for bad relations between the states. ’ For (b) include all L5 answers which use the evidence to modify the hypothesis (rather than simply seeking to support/contradict) in order to improve it. For example, ‘An alternative explanation is that, although Austria did not exaggerate the horror of the assassination in the short term, it was not justified in using it as the excuse for a major war against Serbia which was then to involve all of the major countries in Europe. The assassination did not only horrify Austria but all major European countries, the members of the Triple Entente as well as those of the Triple Alliance. Austria used the assassination to justify the complete suppression of Serbia, which had been its enemy for a long time. Source C is the only extract that refers to long-term issues and it is very one-sided. However, the crisis in Sarajevo can only be understood when we consider these long term issues, including the animosity between the Austrian Empire and the more recently independent Balkan states and Austria’s membership of the Triple Alliance, with its rivalry to the major states in the Triple Entente. The Serbian government could have done more to suppress anti-Austrian terrorist groups but it did not have direct responsibility for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Sarajevo and tried seriously to defuse the situation. ’  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 8 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 Section B Essay Questions 2 How far did Napoleon Bonaparte ensure liberty and equality in his domestic government of France? The key issue is the nature of Napoleon’s government of France. The question clearly refers to domestic issues; discussions of foreign policy or the impact of Napoleon’s rule on other countries will not be relevant unless they are a brief part of introductions or conclusions. One would expect answers in Bands 1 (21–25) and 2 (18–20) to consider arguments for and against Napoleon’s support for liberty and equality. However, examiners should not require an equal balance. The balance will reflect the argument. For example, it might reject ’liberal’ measures as of minor importance. Answers in other Bands might plump for an argument that accepts or rejects ’liberty and equality;’ without considering the alternative at all. It will be relevant to discuss the Code Napoleon (1804), an attempt to unify the diverse laws of France. Its confirmation of equality before the law and the end of privilege, and religious toleration would point towards Napoleon’s liberalism. Careers were open to talent. However, associations of workers were banned and women were given fewer rights than men. Napoleon kept a tight hold on power through his autocratic rule. Officials were nominated and the Empire ensured Napoleon’s personal rule. Opposition was suppressed and reference might be made to the work of Fouche as Minister of Police. Equality was limited by the restriction of promotion to Napoleon’s supporters. 3 Why did industrialisation have important political effects on Europe during the nineteenth century? (You should refer to developments in at least two of the following countries: Britain, France and Germany in your answer. The key issue is the link between industrialisation and political developments. Candidates are asked to refer to at least two countries. This should help to avoid vague responses. However, examiners will not expect any balance between the two or three countries and the question does not specify how much time should be given to particular examples. It w ill not be necessary to describe the development of the Industrial Revolution per se but to link developments to the key issue. It might be argued that the Industrial Revolution encouraged the growth of a new middle class. Its economic wealth enabled it to play a more important political role. Reference might be made to the Reform Acts (1832 and 1867) in Britain and to political advances in France from 1848. The position of the urban working class, although it lacked economic power, was enhanced by its concentration in large towns. Gradually political concessions had to be made to them, partly to avoid unrest. Reference might be made to the Reform Acts (1867 and 1884), with its supplements such as the Secret Ballot Act, in Britain and to political events in France. Political concessions were also made to the working class in Germany by the end of the nineteenth century. It will be relevant to discuss social reform, for example in education and housing, which came about largely because of the political pressures from the working class. High credit should be given when candidates point out the link between industrialisation and new political ideas such as Socialism and Marxism.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 9 4 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 Why was Bismarck more successful than the revolutionaries of 1848–49 in unifying Germany? The key issue is the contrast between Bismarck’s success and the failure of the German revolutionaries in 1848–49. Examiners should expect a reasonable balance. 60:40 either way can merit any mark but 70:30 would normally lead to the award of one Band lower than would otherwise be given. However, as in all answers, the overall quality of the argument will be the most important criterion. An excellent discussion of Bismarck in an otherwise unbalanced answer might still be worth a high mark. Band 5 (11–13) will require a basic understanding of either Bismarck or the 1848–49 revolutions. The question asks ‘Why? ’ and the most effective answers will be analytical but answers that contain sequential analyses of Bismarck and 1848–49 should not be undervalued. Bismarck was helped by Prussia’s strong military power whereas the earlier revolutionaries had been militarily weak. He was supported by William I whereas Frederick William IV spurned the possibility of a German crown. However, Frederick William IV did introduce a comparatively liberal constitution that became attractive to other German states. Prussia’s economy was strong; candidates can discuss the importance of the Zollverein. Bismarck was more skilful in handling the other German states. He was more successful in dealing with other countries through his diplomacy and use of war. Candidates can illustrate this through the Danish War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Meanwhile, Austria was a weaker rival by the 1860s and less able to prevent German unification. 5 Explain the problems European countries faced in promoting imperial expansion during the later nineteenth century. The key issue is the problems faced by European countries when they engaged in imperial enterprises. Examiners will look for some examples, both from Europe and overseas. However, the range of possible overseas examples is wide and examiners will be realistic in their expectations. For example, some very good arguments might be supported by examples from a limited range of regions. There were problems in communication. Governments were sometimes involved in enterprises because of the actions of local officials, for example Britain and Cecil Rhodes. Sometimes different policies were favoured. For example, Bismarck was less enthusiastic than German public opinion. In spite of hopes for profits, imperial expansion could be expensive. Imperialism resulted in tensions between countries and added to military costs because larger and more expensive navies were needed. There was the danger of war and reference can be made to some crises such as Britain and France’s involvement at Fashoda (1898). Some candidates might slant the question to use ‘problems’ as a device to explain the causes of imperialism, for example economic advantage or strategic interests. This will be valid as long as the link is made between causes and problems.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 10 6 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 Why was the First World War so important in the downfall of the Romanov regime and the victory of the Bolsheviks? The key issue is the link between the First World War and the events of 1917. Candidates might take either of two approaches. 1914–17 might be seen as the culmination of a long decline of tsarist government, with less attention being given to the wartime period. Alternatively, answers might begin in 1914. Either approach is possible but the temptation in the first will be to spend too long on the pre-war period. In particular, the Bolsheviks were not in a strong position in 1914 and answers in Band 1 (21–25) and Band 2 (18–20) will need to show a sound understanding of the Bolshevik victory by the end of 1917. Answers that deal only with the February or the October Revolutions might find it difficult to get beyond Band 3 (16–17). The war discredited Nicholas II’s regime. Russia suffered heavy defeats with massive casualties. The resulting inflation ruined an economy that had been improving by 1914 but was still too weak to sustain the pressures of the conflict. Food became short. The Tsar’s decision to take personal command showed his lack of ability as a military leader but it also discredited him politically. Russia was left to the rule of Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin. The outcome was the February Revolution. In spite of their later propaganda, Lenin and the Bolsheviks were not important in this rising. Kerensky and the Provisional Government failed to establish a stable government. They tried to deal with grievances about food and land but ineffectively. The many political groups could not be managed. The war continued unsuccessfully and the resulting grievances increased. Although Lenin and the Bolsheviks were checked in the July Days, Kornilov’s attempted coup discredited Kerensky. The October Revolution showed the ability of Lenin and the Bolsheviks, although a minority, to take decisive action. Lenin’s promise of major reforms and slogans such as ‘All power to the soviets’ had an enthusiastic response. Lenin soon abandoned his offer of a coalition government to install the Bolsheviks firmly in power. ‘The unpopularity of the Versailles settlement was the most important reason why Hitler gained power in 1933. ’ How far do you agree with this judgement? The key issue is the reasons why Hitler came to power in 1933. Candidates might continue the explanation throughout 1933 by explaining the sequence of events from his ap pointment as Chancellor to the introduction of the Enabling Act. However, answers that end with the Chancellor’s appointment can merit any mark. The question asks candidates to consider particularly the importance of the Versailles settlement. This dismantled the German military. Colonies were surrendered. There were territorial concessions in Europe, especially the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France and the loss of areas in the east to Poland. People who were regarded as German were living in other countries. Reparations had to be paid. Unification with Austria was forbidden. The War Guilt clause attributed blame for the First World War to Germany. Hatred of the settlement, the ‘stab in the back’ and the ‘November Criminals’ united Germans. This can form the basis of a good answer. However, answers in Band 1 (21–25) and Band 2 (18–20) can be expected to go further and compare Versailles as a reason with other factors. Weimar Germany did not establish a stable democracy. Proportional representation allowed small parties to exert undue politician influence. Changes of government were frequent. Extreme right and left-wing parties caused tensions. However, high credit should be given to candidates who understand the limited appeal of the Nazis in the 1920s. The Munich Putsch (1923) was put down easily. The army and the Junkers/traditionally strong right-wing social classes continued to exert influence. Nevertheless, Weimar seemed to have been more successful in the 1920s. It alleviated the worst economic effects of the war, came to agreements about the repayment of reparations and was accepted as a leading member of the League of Nations. The death of Stresemann was a blow and it can be argued that the Wall Street Crash (1929) that drove the Weimar Republic off-course. Hitler himself was an effective leader. He built up the Nazis through organisation and propaganda to become the second largest party in the 1930 election and the largest in 1932 – but they actually lost support in a later election that year. He kept his nerve when others, such as von Papen, thought that they could control him, refusing to accept any office except Chancellor.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net www. studyguide. pk Page 11 8 Mark Scheme GCE A/AS LEVEL – May/June 2008 Syllabus 9697 Paper 01 How different were Stalin’s policies in governing Russia to 1939 from those of Nicholas II? The key issue is the contrast between Stalin and Nicholas II. Examiners can look for a balanced approach. 60:40 either way can merit any mark but 70:30 would normally lead to the award of one Band lower than would otherwise be given. However, as in all answers, the overall quality of the argument will be the most important criterion. An excellent discussion of either Stalin or Nicholas II in an otherwise unbalanced answer might still be worth a high mark. Candidates are free to argue that the similarities were more important than the differences: they were both autocrats; they suppressed political opposition; their secret police operated outside the law; they represented a personal cult of government. However, it might be claimed that Stalin’s rule was more brutal. The millions of casualties went far beyond the numbers who were prosecuted/persecuted by Nicholas II. Their ideologies were different. Stalin claimed, justifiably or not, that his regime was based on Marxism. Nicholas II ruled by divine right. A few candidates might mention their different attitudes to religion and the Church but this is not necessary for any mark. Their economic policies were different. Stalin regarded economic change as a high priority. He pushed through radical reforms in agriculture and industry that had wholesale social implications. Nicholas II allowed some economic reforms – for example the policies of Witte and Stolypin – but they were not particularly important to his conservative mind. Nicholas II was averse to change, unlike Stalin who introduced constant political social and economic change. Although he enjoyed an autocratic position, Nicholas II was personally weak, open to advice especially from the Tsarina. He allowed some courtiers and Rasputin to have too much influence. Stalin shared power with nobody. He destroyed those who helped him to power, including Kamenev, Zinoviev and Bukharin. The purges destroyed people who were not a real threat to his regime.  © UCLES 2008 www. xtremepapers. net How to cite Marking Scheme, Essay examples

Overview of the Data Mining free essay sample

Order Code RL31798 CRS Report for Congress Received through the CRS Web Data Mining: An Overview Updated December 16, 2004 Jeffrey W. Seifert Analyst in Information Science and Technology Policy Resources, Science, and Industry Division Congressional Research Service ? The Library of Congress Data Mining: An Overview Summary Data mining is emerging as one of the key features of many homeland security initiatives. Often used as a means for detecting fraud, assessing risk, and product retailing, data mining involves the use of data analysis tools to discover previously unknown, valid patterns and relationships in large data sets. In the context of homeland security, data mining is often viewed as a potential means to identify terrorist activities, such as money transfers and communications, and to identify and track individual terrorists themselves, such as through travel and immigration records. While data mining represents a significant advance in the type of analytical tools currently available, there are limitations to its capability. One limitation is that although data mining can help reveal patterns and relationships, it does not tell the user the value or significance of these patterns. These types of determinations must be made by the user. A second limitation is that while data mining can identify connections between behaviors and/or variables, it does not necessarily identify a causal relationship. To be successful, data mining still requires skilled technical and analytical specialists who can structure the analysis and interpret the output that is created. Data mining is becoming increasingly common in both the private and public sectors. Industries such as banking, insurance, medicine, and retailing commonly use data mining to reduce costs, enhance research, and increase sales. In the public sector, data mining applications initially were used as a means to detect fraud and waste, but have grown to also be used for purposes such as measuring and improving program performance. However, some of the homeland security data mining applications represent a significant expansion in the quantity and scope of data to be analyzed. Two efforts that have attracted a higher level of congressional interest include the Terrorism Information Awareness (TIA) project (now-discontinued) and the Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System II (CAPPS II) project (nowcanceled and replaced by Secure Flight). As with other aspects of data mining, while technological capabilities are important, there are other implementation and oversight issues that can influence the success of a project’s outcome. One issue is data quality, which refers to the accuracy and completeness of the data being analyzed. A second issue is the interoperability of the data mining software and databases being used by different agencies. A third issue is mission creep, or the use of data for purposes other than for which the data were originally collected. A fourth issue is privacy. Questions that may be considered include the degree to which government agencies should use and mix commercial data with government data, whether data sources are being used for purposes other than those for which they were originally designed, and possible application of the Privacy Act to these initiatives. It is anticipated that congressional oversight of data mining projects will grow as data mining efforts continue to evolve. This report will be updated as events warrant. Contents What is Data Mining? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Limitations of Data Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Data Mining Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Terrorism Information Awareness (TIA) Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS II) . . . . . . . . . 7 Data Mining Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Data Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Mission Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Legislation in the 108th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Data Mining: An Overview What is Data Mining? Data mining involves the use of sophisticated data analysis tools to discover previously unknown, valid patterns and relationships in large data sets. These tools can include statistical models, mathematical algorithms, and machine learning methods (algorithms that improve their performance automatically through experience, such as neural networks or decision trees). Consequently, data mining consists of more than collecting and managing data, it also inc ludes analysis and prediction. Data mining can be performed on data represented in quantitative, textual, or multimedia forms. Data mining applications can use a variety of parameters to examine the data. They include association (patterns where one event is connected to another event, such as purchasing a pen and purchasing paper), sequence or path analysis (patterns where one event leads to another event, such as the birth of a child and purchasing diapers), classification (identification of new patterns, such as coincidences between duct tape purchases and plastic sheeting purchases), clustering (finding and visually documenting groups of previously unknown facts, such as geographic location and brand preferences), and forecasting (discovering patterns from which one can make reasonable predictions regarding future activities, such as the prediction that people who join an athletic club may take exercise classes). As an application, compared to other data analysis applications, such as structured queries (used in many commercial databases) or statistical analysis software, data mining represents a difference of kind rather than degree. Many simpler analytical tools utilize a verifi cation-based approach, where the user develops a hypothesis and then tests the data to prove or disprove the hypothesis. For example, a user might hypothesize that a customer who buys a hammer, will also buy a box of nails. The effectiveness of this approach can be limited by the creativity of the user to develop various hypotheses, as well as the structure of the software being used. In contrast, data mining utilizes a discovery approach, in which algorithms can be used to examine several multidimensional data relationships simultaneously, identifying those that are unique or frequently represented. For example, a hardware store may compare their customers’ tool purchases with home ownership, type of automobile driven, age, occupation, income, and/or distance between residence and Two Crows Corporation, Introduction to Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Third Edition (Potomac, MD: Two Crows Corporation, 1999); Pieter Adriaans and Dolf Zantinge, Data Mining (New York: Addison Wesley, 1996). For a more technically-oriented definition of data mining, [http://searchcrm. echtarget. com/gDefinition/0,294236,sid11_gci211901,00. html]. 2 1 see CRS-2 the store. As a result of its complex capabilities, two precursors are important for a successful data mining exercise; a clear formulation of the problem to be solved, and access to the relevant data. 3 Reflecting t his conceptualization of data mining, some observers consider data mining to be just one step in a larger process known as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). Other steps in the KDD process, in progressive order, include data cleaning, data integration, data selection, data transformation, (data mining), pattern evaluation, and knowledge presentation. A number of advances in technology and business processes have contributed to a growing interest in data mining in both the public and private sectors. Some of these changes include the growth of computer networks, which can be used to connect databases; the development of enhanced search-related techniques such as neural networks and advanced algorithms; the spread of the client/server computing model, allowing users to access centralized data resources from the desktop; and an increased ability to combine data from disparate sources into a single searchable source. 5 In addition to these improved data management tools, the increa sed availability of information and the decreasing costs of storing it have also played a role. Over the past several years there has been a rapid increase in the volume of information collected and stored, with some observers suggesting that the quantity of the world’s data approximately doubles every year. 6 At the same time, the costs of data storage have decreased significantly from dollars per megabyte to pennies per megabyte. Similarly, computing power has continued to double every 18-24 months, while the relative cost of computing power has continued to decrease. 7 Data mining has become increasingly common in both the public and private sectors. Organizations use data mining as a tool to survey customer information, reduce fraud and waste, and assist in medical research. However, the proliferation of data mining has raised some implementation and oversight issues as well. These include concerns about the quality of the data being analyzed, the interoperability of the databases and software between agencies, and potential infringements on privacy. Also, there are some concerns that the limitations of data mining are being overlooked as agencies work to emphasize their homeland security initiatives. 3 John Makulowich, â€Å"Government Data Mining Systems Defy Definition,† Washington Technology, 22 February 1999, [http://www. washingtontechnology. com/news/13_22/tech_ features/393-3. html]. Jiawei Han and Micheline Kamber, Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (New York: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2001), p. 7. 4 5 Pieter Adriaans and Dolf Zantinge, Data Mining (New York: Addison Wesley, 1996), pp. 5-6. Ibid. , p. 2. Two Crows Corporation, Introduction to Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Third Edition (Potomac, MD: Two Crows Corporation, 1999), p. 4. 6 7 CRS-3 Limitations of Data Mining While data mining products can be very powerful tools, they are not selfsufficient applications. To be successful, data mining requires skilled technical and analytical specialists who can structure the analysis and interpret the output that is created. Consequently, the limitations of data mining are primarily data or personnelrelated, rather than technology-related. 8 Although data mining can help reveal patterns and relationships, it does not tell the user the value or significance of these patterns. These types of determinations must be made by the user. Similarly, the validity of the patterns discovered is dependent on how they compare to â€Å"real world† circumstances. For example, to assess the validity of a data mining application designed to identify potential terrorist suspects in a large pool of individuals, the user may test the model using data that includes information about known terrorists. However, while possibly re-affirming a particular profile, it does not necessarily mean that the application will identify a suspect whose behavior significantly deviates from the original model. Another limitation of data mining is that while it can identify connections between behaviors and/or variables, it does not necessarily identify a causal relationship. For example, an application may identify that a pattern of behavior, such as the propensity to purchase airline tickets just shortly before the flight is scheduled to depart, is related to characteristics such as income, level of education, and Internet use. However, that does not necessarily indicate that the ticket purchasing behavior is caused by one or more of these variables. In fact, the individual’s behavior could be affected by some additional variable(s) such as occupation (the need to make trips on short notice), family status (a sick relative needing care), or a hobby (taking advantage of last minute discounts to visit new destinations). 9 Data Mining Uses Data mining is used for a variety of purposes in both the private and public sectors. Industries such as banking, insurance, medicine, and retailing commonly use data mining to reduce costs, enhance research, and increase sales. For example, the insurance and banking industries use data mining applications to detect fraud and assist in risk assessment (e. g. , credit scoring). Using customer data collected over several years, companies can develop models that predict whether a customer is a good credit risk, or whether an accident claim may be fraudulent and should be investigated more closely. The medical community sometimes uses data mining to help predict the effectiveness of a procedure or medicine. Pharmaceutical firms use data mining of chemical compounds and genetic material to help guide research on new treatments for diseases. Retailers can use information collected through affinity programs (e. g. , shoppers’ club cards, frequent flyer points, contests) to assess the 8 9 Ibid. , p. 2. Ibid. , p. 1. CRS-4 effectiveness of product selection and placement decisions, coupon offers, and which products are often purchased together. Companies such as telephone service providers and music clubs can use data mining to create a â€Å"churn analysis,† to assess which customers are likely to remain as subscribers and which ones are likely to switch to a competitor. 0 In the public sector, data mining applications were initially used as a means to detect fraud and waste, but they have grown also to be used for purposes such as measuring and improving program performance. It has been reported that data mining has helped the federal government recover millions of dollars in fraudulent Medicare payments. 11 The Justice Department has been able to use data mining to assess crime patterns and adjust resource allotments accordingly. Similarly, the Department of Veterans Affairs has used data mining to help predict demographic changes in the constituency it serves so that it can better estimate its budgetary needs. Another example is the Federal Aviation Administration, which uses data mining to review plane crash data to recognize common defects and recommend precautionary measures. 2 Recently, data mining has been increasingly cited as an important tool for homeland security efforts. Some observers suggest that data mining should be used as a means to identify terrorist activities, such as money transfers and communications, and to identify and track individual terrorists themselves, such as through travel and immigration records. Two initiatives that have attracted significant attention include the now-discontinued Terrorism Information Awareness (TIA) project13 conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and the now-canceled Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System II (CAPPS II) that was being developed by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). CAPPS II is being replaced by a new program called Secure Flight. Two Crows Corporation, Introduction to Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Third Edition (Potomac, MD: Two Crows Corporation, 1999), p. 5; Patrick Dillon, Data Mining: Transforming Business Data Into Competitive Advantage and Intellectual Capital (Atlanta GA: The Information Management Forum, 1998), pp. 5-6. George Cahlink, â€Å"Data Mining Taps the Trends,† Government Executive Magazine, October 1, 2000, [http://www. govexec. com/tech/articles/1000managetech. htm]. Ibid. ; for a more detailed review of the purpose for data mining conducted by federal departments and agencies, see U. S. General Accounting Office, Data Mining: Federal Efforts Cover a Wide Range of Uses, GAO Report GAO-04-548 (Washington: May 2004). This project was originally identified as the Total Information Awareness project until DARPA publicly renamed it the Terrorism Information Awareness project in May 2003. Section 8131 of the FY2004 Department of Defense Appropriations Act (P. L. 108-87) prohibited further funding of TIA as a whole, while allowing unspecified subcomponents of the TIA initiative to be funded as part of DOD’s classified budget, subject to the provisions of the National Foreign Intelligence Program, which restricts the processing and analysis of information on U. S. citizens. For further details regarding this provision, see CRS Report RL31805 Authorization and Appropriations for FY2004: Defense, by Amy Belasco and Stephen Daggett. 13 12 11 10 CRS-5 Terrorism Information Awareness (TIA) Program In the immediate aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, many questions were raised about the country’s intelligence tools and capabilities, as well as the government’s ability to detect other so-called â€Å"sleeper cells,† if, indeed, they existed. One response to these concerns was the creation of the Information Awareness Office (IAO) at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)14 in January 2002. The role of IAO was â€Å"in part to bring together, under the leadership of one technical office director, several existing DARPA programs focused on applying information technology to combat terrorist threats. †15 The mission statement for IAO suggested that the emphasis on these technology programs was to â€Å"counter asymmetric threats by achieving total information awareness useful for preemption, national security warning, and national security decision making. †16 To that end, the TIA project was to focus on three specific areas of research, anticipated to be conducted over five years, to develop technologies that would assist in the detection of terrorist groups planning attacks against American interests, both inside and outside the country. The three areas of research and their purposes were described in a DOD Inspector General report as: â€Å"†¦ language translation, data search with pattern recognition and privacy protection, and advanced collaborative and decision support tools. Language translation technology would enable the rapid analysis of foreign languages, both spoken and written, and allow analysts to quickly search the translated materials for clues about emerging threats. The data search, pattern recognition, and privacy protection technologies would permit analysts to search vast quantities of data for patterns that suggest terrorist activity while at the same time controlling access to the data, enforcing laws and policies, and ensuring detection of misuse of the information obtained. The collaborative reasoning and decision support technologies would allow analysts from different agencies to share data. †17 Each part had the potential to improve the data mining capabilities of agencies that adopt the technology. 18 Automated rapid language translation could allow DARPA â€Å"is the central research and development organization for the Department of Defense (DOD)† that engages in basic and applied research, with a specific focus on â€Å"research and technology where risk and payoff are both very high and where success may provide dramatic advances for traditional military roles and missions. † [http://www. darpa. mil/] Department of Defense. 20 May 2003. Report to Congress Regarding the Terrorism Information Awareness Program, Executive Summary, p. 2. Department of Defense. 20 May 2003. Report to Congress Regarding the Terrorism Information Awareness Program, Detailed Information, p. 1 (emphasis added). Department of Defense, Office of the Inspector General. 12 December 2003. Information Technology Management: Terrorism Information Awareness Project (D2004033). P. 7. It is important to note that while DARPA’s mission is to conduct research and development on technologies that can be used to address national-level problems, it would (continued ) 18 17 16 15 14 CRS-6 analysts to search and monitor foreign language documents and transmissions more quickly than currently possible. Improved search and pattern recognition technologies may enable more comprehensive and thorough mining of transactional data, such as passport and visa applications, car rentals, driver license renewals, criminal records, and airline ticket purchases. Improved collaboration and decision support tools might facilitate the search and coordination activities being conducted by different agencies and levels of government. 19 In public statements DARPA frequently referred to the TIA program as a research and development project designed to create experimental prototype tools, and that the research agency would only use â€Å"data that is legally available and obtainable by the U. S. Government. †20 DARPA further emphasized that these tools could be dopted and used by other agencies, and that DARPA itself would not be engaging in any actual-use data mining applications, although it could â€Å"support production of a scalable leave-behind system prototype. †21 In addition, so me of the technology projects being carried out in association with the TIA program did not involve data mining. 22 However, the TIA program’s overall emphasis on collecting, tracking, and analyzing data trails left by individuals served to generate significant and vocal opposition soon after John Poindexter made a presentation on TIA at the DARPATech 2002 Conference in August 2002. 23 Critics of the TIA program were further incensed by two administrative aspects of the project. The first involved the Director of IAO, Dr. John M. Poindexter. Poindexter, a retired Admiral, was, until that time, perhaps most well-known for his alleged role in the Iran-contra scandal during the Reagan Administration. His involvement with the program caused many in the civil liberties community to ( continued) not be responsible for the operation of TIA, if it were to be adopted. For more details about the Terrorism Information Awareness program and related information and privacy laws, see CRS Report RL31730, Privacy: Total Information Awareness Programs and Related Information Access, Collection, and Protection Laws, by Gina Marie Stevens, and CRS Report RL31786, Total Information Awareness Programs: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issues, by Amy Belasco. Department of Defense, DARPA, â€Å"Defense Advanced Research Project Agency’s Information Awareness Office and Total Information Awareness Project,† p. 1, [http://www. iwar. org. uk/news-archive/tia/iaotia. pdf]. 21 22 20 19 18 Ibid. , p. 2. Although most of the TIA-related projects did involve some form of data collection, the primary purposes of some of these projects, such as war gaming, language translation, and biological agent detection, were less connected to data mining activities. For a description of these projects, see [http://www. fas. org/irp/agency/dod/poindexter. html]. The text of Poindexter’s presentation is available at [http://www. darpa. mil/DARPATech2002/presentations/iao_pdf/speeches/POINDEXT. pdf]. The slide presentation of Poindexter’s presentation is available at [http://www. darpa. mil/DARPATech2002/presentations/iao_pdf/slides/PoindexterIAO. pdf]. 23 CRS-7 question the true motives behind TIA. 24 The second source of contention involved TIA’s original logo, which depicted an â€Å"all-seeing† eye atop of a pyramid looking down over the globe, accompanied by the Latin phrase scientia est potentia (knowledge is power). 25 Although DARPA eventually removed the logo from its website, it left a lasting impression. The continued negative publicity surrounding the TIA program contributed to the introduction of a number of bills in Congress that eventually led to the program’s dissolution. Among these bills was S. 88, the Data-Mining Moratorium Act of 2003, which, if passed, would have imposed a moratorium on the implementation of data mining under the TIA program by the Department of Defense, as well as any similar program by the Department of Homeland Security. An amendment included in the Omnibus Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 2003 (P. L. 108-7) required the Director of Central Intelligence, the Secretary of Defense, and the Attorney General to submit a joint report to Congress within 90 days providing details about the TIA program. 26 Funding for TIA as a whole was prohibited with the passage of the FY2004 Department of Defense Appropriations Act (P. L. 108-87) in September 2003. However, Section 8131 of the law allowed unspecified subcomponents of the TIA initiative to be funded as part of DOD’s classified budget, subject to the provisions of the National Foreign Intelligence Program, which restricts the processing and analysis of information on U. S. citizens. 27 Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS II) Similar to TIA, the CAPPS II project represented a direct response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. With the images of airliners flying into buildings fresh in people’s minds, air travel was now widely viewed not only as a critically vulnerable terrorist target, but also as a weapon for inflicting larger harm. The CAPPS II initiative was intended to replace the original CAPPS, currently being used. Spurred, in part, by the growing umber of airplane bombings, the existing CAPPS (originally called CAPS) was developed through a grant provided by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to Northwest Airlines, with a prototype Shane Harris, â€Å"Counterterrorism Project Assailed By Lawmakers, Privacy Advocates,† Government Executive Magazine, 25 November 2002, [http://www. govexec. com/dailyfed/1102/112502h1. htm]. The original logo can be found at [http://www. thememoryhole. org/policestate/iaologo. htm]. The report is available at [http://www. eff. org/Privacy/TIA/TIA-report. pdf]. Some of the information required includes spending schedules, likely effectiveness of the program, likely impact on privacy and civil liberties, and any laws and regulations that may need to be changed to fully deploy TIA. If the report had not submitted within 90 days, funding for the TIA program could have been discontinued. For more details regarding this amendment, see CRS Report RL31786, Total Information Awareness Programs: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issues, by Amy Belasco. For further details regarding this provision, see CRS Report RL31805 Authorization and Appropriations for FY2004: Defense, by Amy Belasco and Stephen Daggett. 27 26 25 24 CRS-8 system tested in 1996. In 1997, other major carriers also began work on screening systems, and, by 1998, most of the U. S. -based airlines had voluntarily implemented CAPS, with the remaining few working toward implementation. 8 Also, during this time, the White House Commission on Aviation Safety and Security (sometimes referred to as the Gore Commission) released its final report in February 1997. 29 Included in the commission’s report was a recommendation that the United States implement automated passenger profiling for its airports. 30 On April 19, 1999, the FAA issued a notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) regarding the security of checked baggage on flights within the United States (docket no. FAA-1999-5536). 31 As part of this still-pending rule, domestic flights would be required to utilize â€Å"the FAA-approved computer-assisted passenger screening (CAPS) system to select passengers whose checked baggage must be subjected to additional security measures. 32 The current CAPPS system is a rule-based system that uses the information provided by the passenger when purchasing the ticket to determine if the passenger fits into one of two categories; â€Å"selectees† requiring additional security screening, and those who do not. CAPPS also compares the passenger name to those on a list of known or suspected terrorists. 33 CAPPS II was described by TSA as â€Å"an enhanced system to confirm the identities of passengers and to identify foreign terrorists or persons with terrorist connections before they can board U. S. aircraft. †34 CAPPS II would have sent information provided by the passenger in the passengers name record (PNR), including full name, address, phone number, and date of birth, to commercial data providers for comparison to authenticate the identity of the passenger. The commercial data provider would have then transmitted a numerical score back to TSA indicating a particular risk level. 35 Passengers with a â€Å"green† score would have undergone â€Å"normal screening,† while passengers with a â€Å"yellow† score would have undergone additional screening. Passengers with a â€Å"red† score would not have been allowed to board the flight, and would have received â€Å"the Department of Transportation, White House Commission on Aviation and Security: The DOT Status Report, February 1998, [http://www. dot. gov/affairs/whcoasas. htm]. The Gore Commission was established by Executive Order 13015 on August 22, 1996, following the crash of TWA flight 800 in July 1996. White House Commission on Aviation Safety and Security: Final Report to President Clinton. 12 February 1997. [http://www. fas. org/irp/threat/212fin~1. html]. T h e d o c k e t c a n b e f o u n d o n l i n e [http://dms. dot. gov/search/document. cfm? documentid=57279docketid=5536]. 32 33 3 1 30 29 28 a t Federal Register, 64 (April 19,1999): 19220. U. S. General Accounting Office, Aviation Security: Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System Faces Significant Implementation Challenges, GAO Report GAO-04385, February 2004, pp. 5-6. Transportation Security Administration, â€Å"TSA’s CAPPS II Gives Equal Weight to Privacy, Security,† Press Release, 11 March 2003, [http://www. tsa. gov/public/display? theme=44content=535]. Robert O’Harrow, Jr. , â€Å"Aviation ID System Stirs Doubt,† Washington Post, 14 March 2003, p. A16. 35 34 CRS-9 attention of law enforcement. †36 While drawing on information from commercial databases, TSA had stated that it would not see the actual information used to calculate the scores, and that it would not retain the traveler’s information. TSA had planned to test the system at selected airports during spring 2004. 37 However, CAPPS II encountered a number of obstacles to implementation. One obstacle involved obtaining the required data to test the system. Several high-profile debacles resulting in class-action lawsuits have made the U. S. based airlines very wary of voluntarily providing passenger information. In early 2003, Delta Airlines was to begin testing CAPPS II using its customers’ passenger data at three airports across the country. However, Delta became the target of a vociferous boycott campaign, raising further concerns about CAP PS II generally. 38 In September 2003, it was revealed that JetBlue shared private passenger information in September 2002 with Torch Concepts, a defense contractor, which was testing a data mining application for the U. S. Army. The information shared reportedly included itineraries, names, addresses, and phone numbers for 1. 5 million passengers. 9 In January 2004, it was reported that Northwest Airlines provided personal information on millions of its passengers to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from October to December 2001 for an airline security-related data mining experiment. 40 In April 2004, it was revealed that American Airlines agreed to provide private passenger data on 1. 2 million of its customers to TSA in June 2002, although the information was sent instead to four companies competing to win a contract with TSA. 41 Further instances of data being provided for the purpose of testing CAPPS II were brought to light during a Senate Committee on Government Affairs confirmation hearing on June 23, 2004. In his answers to the committee, the acting director of TSA, David M. Stone, stated that during 2002 and 2003 four airlines; Delta, Continental, America West, and Frontier, and two travel reservation companies; Galileo International and Sabre Holdings, provided passenger records to TSA and/or its contractors. 42 Transportation Security Administration, â€Å"TSA’s CAPPS II Gives Equal Weight to Privacy, Security,† Press Release, 11 March 2003, [http://www. tsa. gov/public/display? theme=44content=535]. Sara Kehaulani Goo, â€Å"U. S. to Push Airlines for Passenger Records,† Washington Post, 12 January 2004, p. A1. 38 39 37 36 The Boycott Delta website is available at [http://www. boycottdelta. org]. Don Phillips, â€Å"JetBlue Apologizes for Use of Passenger Records,† The Washington Post, 20 September 2003, p. E1; Sara Kehaulani Goo, â€Å"TSA Helped JetBlue Share Data, Report Says,† Washington Post, 21 February 2004, p. E1. Sara Kehaulani Goo, â€Å"Northwest Gave U. S. Data on Passengers,† Washington Post,18 January 2004, p. A1. Sara Kehaulani Goo, â€Å"American Airlines Revealed Passenger Data,† Washington Post, 10 April 2004, p. D12. 42 41 40 For the written responses to the committee’s questions, see [http://www. epic. org/privacy/airtravel/stone_answers. pdf]; Sara Kehaulani Goo, â€Å"Agency Got More Airline Records,†Washington Post, 24 June 2004, p. A16. CRS-10 Concerns about privacy protections had also dissuaded the European Union (EU) from providing any data to TSA to test CAPPS II. However, in May 2004, the EU signed an agreement with the United States that would have allowed PNR data for flights originating from the EU to be used in testing CAPPS II, but only after TSA was authorized to use domestic data as well. As part of the agreement, the EU data was to be retained for only three-and-a-half years (unless it is part of a law enforcement action), only 34 of the 39 elements of the PNR were to be accessed by authorities,43 and there were to be yearly joint DHS-EU reviews of the implementation of the agreement. 44 Another obstacle was the perception of mission creep. CAPPS II was originally intended to just screen for high-risk passengers who may pose a threat to safe air travel. However, in an August 1, 2003, Federal Register notice, TSA stated that CAPPS II could also be used to identify individuals with outstanding state or federal arrest warrants, as well as identify both foreign and domestic terrorists (not just foreign terrorists). The notice also states that CAPPS II could be â€Å"linked with the U. S. Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) program† to identify individuals who are in the country illegally (e. g. , individuals with expired visas, illegal aliens, etc. ). 45 In response to critics who cited these possible uses as examples of mission creep, TSA claimed that the suggested uses were consistent with the goals of improving aviation security. 6 Several other concerns had also been raised, including the length of time passenger information was to be retained, who would have access to the information, the accuracy of the commercial data being used to authenticate a passenger’s identity, the creation of procedu res to allow passengers the opportunity to correct data errors in their records, and the ability of the system to detect attempts by individuals to use identity theft to board a plane undetected. In August 2004, TSA announced that the CAPPS II program was being canceled and would be replaced with a new system called Secure Flight. In the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2005 (P. L. 108-334), Congress included a provision (Sec. 22) prohibiting the use of appropriated funds for â€Å"deployment or implementation, on other than a test basis,† of CAPPS II, Secure Flight, â€Å"or other follow on/successor programs,† until GAO has certified that such a system has met Some information, such as meal preferences, which could be used to infer religious affiliation, and health considerations will not be made available. Goo, Sara Kehaulani, â€Å"U. S. , EU Will Share Passenger Records,† Washington Post, 29 May 2004, p. A2. Department of Homeland Securit y, â€Å"Fact Sheet: US-EU Passenger Name Record Agreement Signed,† 28 May 2004, [http://www. dhs. gov/dhspublic/display? content=3651]. Federal Register. Vol. 68 No. 148 Friday August 1, 2003. P. 45266; U. S. General Accounting Office, Aviation Security: Challenges Delay Implementation of ComputerAssisted Passenger Prescreening System, GAO Testimony GAO-04-504T, 17 March 2004, p. 17 U. S. General Accounting Office, Aviation Security: Challenges Delay Implementation of Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System, GAO Testimony GAO-04-504T, 17 March 2004, p. 17 46 45 44 43 CRS-11 all eight of the privacy requirements enumerated in a February 2004 GAO report,47 can accommodate any unique air transportation needs as it relates to interstate transportation, and that â€Å"appropriate life-cycle cost estimates, and expenditure and program plans exist. † GAO’s certification report is due to Congress no later than March 28, 2005. Data Mining Issues As data mining initiatives continue to evolve, there are several issues Congress may decide to consider related to implementation and oversight. These issues include, but are not limited to, data quality, interoperability, mission creep, and privacy. As with other aspects of data mining, while technological capabilities are important, other factors also influence the success of a project’s outcome. Data Quality Data quality is a multifaceted issue that represents one of the biggest challenges for data mining. Data quality refers to the accuracy and completeness of the data. Data quality can also be affected by the structure and consistency of the data being analyzed. The presence of duplicate records, the lack of data standards, the timeliness of updates, and human error can significantly impact the effectiveness of the more complex data mining techniques, which are sensitive to subtle differences that may exist in the data. To improve data quality, it is sometimes necessary to â€Å"clean† the data, which can involve the removal of duplicate records, normalizing the values used to represent information in the database (e. g. , ensuring that â€Å"no† is represented as a 0 throughout the database, and not sometimes as a 0, sometimes as a N, etc. ), accounting for missing data points, removing unneeded data fields, identifying anomalous data points (e. g. , an individual whose age is shown as 142 years), and standardizing data formats (e. g. , changing dates so they all include MM/DD/YYYY). Interoperability Related to data quality, is the issue of interoperability of different databases and data mining software. Interoperability refers to the ability of a computer system and/or data to work with other systems or data using common standards or processes. Interoperability is a critical part of the larger efforts to improve interagency collaboration and information sharing through e-government and homeland security initiatives. For data mining, interoperability of databases and software is important to enable the search and analysis of multiple databases simultaneously, and to help ensure the compatibility of data mining activities of different agencies. Data mining projects that are trying to take advantage of existing legacy databases or that are 47 The eight issues included establishing an oversight board, ensuring the accuracy of the data used, conducting stress testing, instituting abuse prevention practices, preventing unauthorized access, establishing clear policies for the operation and use of the system, satisfying privacy concerns, and created a redress process. U. S. General Accounting Office, Aviation Security: Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System Faces Significant Implementation Challenges, GAO Report GAO-04-385, February 2004. CRS-12 initiating first-time collaborative efforts with other agencies or levels of government (e. g. , police departments in different states) may experience interoperability problems. Similarly, as agencies move forward with the creation of new databases and information sharing efforts, they will need to address interoperability issues during their planning stages to better ensure the effectiveness of their data mining projects. Mission Creep Mission creep is one of the leading risks of data mining cited by civil libertarians, and represents how control over one’s information can be a tenuous proposition. Mission creep refers to the use of data for purposes other than that for which the data was originally collected. This can occur regardless of whether the data was provided voluntarily by the individual or was collected through other means. Efforts to fight terrorism can, at times, take on an acute sense of urgency. This urgency can create pressure on both data holders and officials who access the data. To leave an available resource unused may appear to some as being negligent. Data holders may feel obligated to make any information available that could be used to prevent a future attack or track a known terrorist. Similarly, government officials responsible for ensuring the safety of others may be pressured to use and/or combine existing databases to identify potential threats. Unlike physical searches, or the detention of individuals, accessing information for purposes other than originally intended may appear to be a victimless or harmless exercise. However, such information use can lead to unintended outcomes and produce misleading results. One of the primary reasons for misleading results is inaccurate data. All data collection efforts suffer accuracy concerns to some degree. Ensuring the accuracy of information can require costly protocols that may not be cost effective if the data is not of inherently high economic value. In well-managed data mining projects, the original data collecting organization is likely to be aware of the data’s limitations and account for these limitations accordingly. However, such awareness may not be communicated or heeded when data is used for other purposes. For example, the accuracy of information collected through a shopper’s club card may suffer for a variety of reasons, including the lack of identity authentication when a card is issued, cashiers using their own cards for customers who do not have one, and/or customers who use multiple cards. 48 For the purposes of marketing to consumers, the impact of these inaccuracies is negligible to the individual. If a government agency were to use that information to target individuals based on food purchases associated with particular religious observances though, an outcome based on inaccurate information could be, at the least, a waste of resources by the government agency, and an unpleasant experience for the misidentified individual. As the March 2004 TAPAC report observes, the potential wide reuse of data suggests that concerns about mission creep can extend beyond privacy to the protection of civil rights in the event that information is used for â€Å"targeting an individual solely on the basis of religion or Technology and Privacy Advisory Committee, Department of Defense. Safeguarding Privacy in the Fight Against Terrorism, March 2004, p. 40. 48 CRS-13 expression, or using information in a way that would violate the constitutional guarantee against self-incrimination. †49 Privacy As additional information sharing and data mining initiatives have been announced, increased attention has focused on the implications for privacy. Concerns about privacy focus both on actual projects proposed, as well as concerns about the potential for data mining applications to be expanded beyond their original purposes (mission creep). For example, some experts suggest that anti-terrorism data mining applications might also be useful for combating other types of crime as well. 0 So far there has been little consensus about how data mining should be carried out, with several competing points of view being debated. Some observers contend that tradeoffs may need to be made regarding privacy to ensure security. Other observers suggest that existing laws and regulations regarding privacy protections are adequate, and that these initiatives do not pose any threats to privacy. Still other observers argue that not enough is known about how data mining projects will be carried out, and that greater oversight is needed. There is also some disagreement over how privacy concerns should be addressed. Some observers suggest that technical solutions are adequate. In contrast, some privacy advocates argue in favor of creating clearer policies and exercising stronger oversight. As data mining efforts move forward, Congress may consider a variety of questions including, the degree to which government agencies should use and mix commercial data with government data, whether data sources are being used for purposes other than those for which they were originally designed, and the possible application of the Privacy Act to these initiatives. Legislation in the 108th Congress During the 108th Congress, a number of legislative proposals were introduced that would restrict data mining activities by some parts of the federal government, and/or increase the reporting requirements of such projects to Congress. For example, on January 16, 2003, Senator Feingold introduced S. 188 the Data-Mining Moratorium Act of 2003, which would have imposed a moratorium on the implementation of data mining under the Total Information Awareness program (now referred to as the Terrorism Information Awareness project) by the Department of Defense, as well as any similar program by the Department of Homeland Security. S. 188 was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary. On January 23, 2003, Senator Wyden introduced S. Amdt. 59, an amendment to H. J. Res. 2, the Omnibus Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 2003. As passed in its final form as part of the omnibus spending bill (P. L. 108-7) on February 13, 2003, 49 50 Ibid. , p. 39. Drew Clark, â€Å"Privacy Experts Differ on Merits of Passenger-Screening Program,† Government Executive Magazine, November 21, 2003, [http://www. govexec. com/dailyfed/ 1103/112103td2. htm]. CRS-14 and signed by the President on February 20, 2003, the amendment requires the Director of Central Intelligence, the Secretary of Defense, and the Attorney General to submit a joint report to Congress within 90 days providing details about the TIA program. 51 Some of the information required includes spending schedules, likely effectiveness of the program, likely impact on privacy and civil liberties, and any laws and regulations that may need to be changed to fully deploy TIA. If the report had not submitted within 90 days, funding for the TIA program could have been discontinued. 52 Funding for TIA was later discontinued in Section 8131 of the FY2004 Department of Defense Appropriations Act (P. L. 108-87), signed into law on September 30, 2003. 53 On March 13, 2003, Senator Wyden introduced an amendment to S. 165 the Air Cargo Security Act, requiring the Secretary of Homeland Security to submit a report to Congress within 90 days providing information about the impact of CAPPS II on privacy and civil liberties. The amendment was passed by the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, and the bill was forwarded for consideration by the full Senate (S. Rept. 108-38). In May 2003, S. 65 was passed by the Senate with the Wyden amendment included and was sent to the House where it was referred to the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure. Funding restrictions on CAPPSII were included in section 519 of the FY2004 Department of Homeland Securi ty Appropriations Act (P. L. 108-90), signed into law October 1, 2003. This provision included restrictions on the â€Å"deployment or implementation, on other than a test basis, of the Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPSII),† pending the completion of a GAO report regarding the efficacy, accuracy, and security of CAPPSII, as well as the existence of a system of an appeals process for individuals identified as a potential threat by the system. 4 In its report delivered to Congress in February 2004, GAO reported that â€Å"As of January 1, 2004, TSA has not fully addressed seven of the eight CAPPSII issues identified by the Congress as key areas of interest. †55 The one issue GAO determined that TSA had addressed is the establishment of an internal oversight board. GAO 51 52 The report is available at [http://www. eff. org/Privacy/TIA/TIA-report. pdf]. For more details regarding this amendment, see CRS Report RL31786, Total Information Awareness Progr ams: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issues, by Amy Belasco. For further details regarding this provision, see CRS Report RL31805 Authorization and Appropriations for FY2004: Defense, by Amy Belasco and Stephen Daggett. Section 519 of P. L. 08-90 specifically identifies eight issues that TSA must address before it can spend funds to deploy or implement CAPPSII on other than a test basis. These include 1. establishing a system of due process for passengers to correct erroneous information; 2. assess the accuracy of the databases being used; 3. stress test the system and demonstrate the efficiency and accuracy of the search tools; 4. establish and internal oversight board; 5. install operational safeguards to prevent abuse; 6. install security measures to protect against unauthorized access by hackers or other intruders; 7. establish policies for effective oversight of system use and operation; and 8. address any privacy concerns related to the system. General Accounting Office, Aviation Security: Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System Faces Significant Implementation Challenges, GAO-04-385, February 2004, p. 4. 55 54 53 CRS-15 attributed the incomplete progress on these issues partly to the â€Å"early stage of the system’s development. †56 On March 25, 2003, the House Committee on Government Reform Subcommittee on Technology, Information Policy, Intergovernmental Relations, and the Census held a hearing on the current and future possibilities of data mining. The witnesses, drawn from federal and state government, industry, and academia, highlighted a number of perceived strengths and weaknesses of data mining, as well as the still-evolving nature of the technology and practices behind data mining. 7 While data mining was alternatively described by some witnesses as a process, and by other witnesses as a productivity tool, there appeared to be a general consensus that the challenges facing the future develop ment and success of government data mining applications were related less to technological concerns than to other issues such as data integrity, security, and privacy. On May 6 and May 20, 2003 the Subcommittee also held hearings on the potential opportunities and challenges for using factual data analysis for national security purposes. On July 29, 2003 Senator Wyden introduced S. 1484 The Citizens’ Protection in Federal Databases Act, which was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary. Among its provisions, S. 484 would have required the Attorney General, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Homeland Security, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Director of Central Intelligence, and the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation to submit to Congress a report containing information regarding the purposes, type of data, costs, contract durations, research methodologies, and other details before obligating or spending any funds on commercially available databases. S. 1484 would also have set restrictions on the conduct of searches or analysis of databases â€Å"based solely on a hypothetical scenario or hypothetical supposition of who may commit a crime or pose a threat to national security. † On July 31, 2003 Senator Feingold introduced S. 1544 the Data-Mining Reporting Act of 2003, which was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary. Among its provisions, S. 544 would have required any department or agency engaged in data mining to submit a public report to Congress regarding these activities. These reports would have been required to include a variety of details about the data mining project, including a description of the technology and data to be used, an assessment of the expected efficacy of the data mining project, a privacy impact assessment, an analysis of the relevant laws and regulations that would govern the project, and a discussion of procedures for informing individuals their personal information will be used and allo wing them to opt out, or an explanation of why such procedures are not in place. Also on July 31, 2003, Senator Murkowski introduced S. 552 the Protecting the Rights of Individuals Act, which was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary. 56 57 Ibid. Witnesses testifying at the hearing included Florida State Senator Paula Dockery, Dr. Jen Que Louie representing Nautilus Systems, Inc. , Mark Forman representing OMB, Gregory Kutz representing GAO, and Jeffrey Rosen, an Associate Professor at George Washington University Law School. CRS-16 Among its provisions, section 7 of S. 1552 would have imposed a moratorium on data mining by any federal department or agency â€Å"except pursuant to a law specifically authorizing such data-mining program or activity by such department or agency. It also would have required The head of each department or agency of the Federal Government that engages or plans to engage in any activities relating to the development or use of a datamining program or activity shall submit to Congress, and make available to the public, a report on such activities. On May 5, 2004, Representative McDermott introduced H. R. 4290 the DataMining Reporting Act of 2004, which was referred to the House Committee on Government Reform Subcommittee on Technology, Information Policy, Intergovernmental Relations, and the Census. H. R. 4290 would have required each department or agency of the Federal Government that is engaged in any activity or use or develop data-mining technology shall each submit a public report to Congress on all such activities of the department or agency under the jurisdiction of that official. A similar provision was included in H. R. 4591/S. 528 the Civil Liberties Restoration Act of 2004. S. 2528 was introduced by Senator Kennedy on June 16, 2004 and referred to the Committee on the Judiciary. H. R. 4591 was introduced by Representative Berman on June 16, 2004 and referred to the Committee on the Judiciary and the Permanent Select C ommittee on Intelligence. For Further Reading CRS Report RL32597, Information Sharing for Homeland Security: A Brief Overview, by Harold C. Relyea and Jeffrey W. Seifert. CRS Report RL31408, Internet Privacy: Overview and Pending Legislation, by Marcia S. Smith. CRS Report RL30671, Personal Privacy Protection: The Legislative Response, by Harold C. Relyea. Archived. CRS Report RL31730, Privacy: Total Information Awareness Programs and Related Information Access, Collection, and Protection Laws, by Gina Marie Stevens. CRS Report RL31786, Total Information Awareness Programs: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issues, by Amy Belasco. DARPA, Report to Congress Regarding the Terrorism Information Awareness Program, May 20, 2003, [http://www. eff. org/Privacy/TIA/TIA-report. pdf]. Department of Defense, Office of the Inspector General, Information Technology Management: Terrorism Information Awareness Program (D-2004-033), December 12, 2003, [http://www. dodig. osd. mil/audit/reports/FY04/04-033. pdf].